The Arab armies were successful for several reasons. First, they were united in the belief that they had a religious duty to spread Islam. The Islamic state, therefore, saw the conquests as a jihad (jih•HAHD), or holy struggle to bring Islam to other lands. In addition, continual warfare between the Byzantines and the Persians had weakened both of their empires and made them open to Arab attacks. Still another factor was the attempt of Byzantine and Persian rulers to impose religious unity on their peoples. Because of persecution, members of unofficial religions in both empires readily accepted Muslim rule.

Divisions Within Islam

While Muslim armies were achieving military success, rival groups fought for the caliphate, or the office of caliph. The struggle began when Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law, became the fourth caliph in A.D. 656. One of Ali's powerful rivals was Mu'awiyah (moo•UH•wee•uh), the governor of Syria. Mu'awiyah carried out conquests in Egypt

and Iraq, steadily weakening Ali's hold on the caliphate. In A.D. 661, Ali was murdered by a disillusioned follower, and Mu'awiyah became the first caliph of the powerful Umayyad (oo•MY•uhd) dynasty. Ali's son Husayn (hoo•SAYN), however, refused to accept Umayyad rule and continued the struggle. In A.D. 680, Husayn and many of his followers were massacred by Umayyad troops in a battle at Karbala in present-day Iraq.

The murders of Ali and Husayn led to a significant division in the Islamic world. The majority of Muslims, known as the Sunni (SU•nee), or "followers of the way," believed that the caliph was primarily a leader, not a religious authority. They also claimed that any devout Muslim could serve in the office with the acceptance of the people. However, the Shiite , the smaller group of Muslims who followed Ali and Husayn, believed that the caliphate should be held only by descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and her husband Ali. Shiite Muslims stressed the spiritual, rather than political, aspects of Islamic leadership. Because of

Images of the Times

Islamic Art and Architecture

Inspired by their faith, artists and architects of Islam created unequaled geometric designs, floral patterns, and calligraphy.

Ornate bookbinding reflected the importance of the book in Islamic civilization.

Carpets and other textiles were turned into fine art pieces by the skilled hands of Islamic weavers.

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